Left And Right Censored Survival Times Philosophy Essay

Left And Right Censored Survival Times Philosophy Essay Provide a clear explanation of what is meant by left censored and right censored survival times, and illustrate your answer with some examples of how each may arise in a social science context. Suppose that you have continuous time unemployment spell data. The data were derived using a stock sample with follow-up (i.e. interviews some time after the stock sampling date). You also know the date of the interview, at which time information about characteristics were collected, and whether or not the spell in progress at the stock sampling date was still in progress and, if not, the date the spell ended. By deduction, you can calculate the length of time between the stock sample date and the date at which each person was last observed to be unemployed (the interview date for those still unemployed; or some date between the stock sample date and interview date for those who got a job). However, you dont know the date at which each persons spell began, and nor therefore the length of each persons unemployment spell in total from start until last observed. With reference to expressions for the sample log-likelihood function, show that it is possible to estimate the parameters of a n Exponential hazard regression model in this case. Also discuss, giving reasons, whether you could estimate a Weibull model with the same data. [adapted from Wooldridge (2002, Ex. 20.3)] Assume that you have a random sample from the inflow to the state, and all survival times are right-censored. (i) Write down the sample log-likelihood function for this situation. (ii) Derive the special case of likelihood function given in (i) when survival times follow the Gompertz distribution. [Recall that the Gompertz model has hazard function q(t, X) = lexp (gt), where l = exp (b0 + b1X1 + b2X2 + à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ + bkXk) and shape parameter g > 0.] (iii) Consider the Gompertz model in which the covariate vector X only contains a constant. Show that the Gompertz log likelihood cannot be maximized for real numbers b0 and g. (iv) From (iii), what do you conclude about estimating duration models from inflow sample data when all survival times are right censored? à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Table of Contents Left censored and Right censored When we deal with observations the observation period is the difference between the time when experiment begins (time is zero) and when it terminates (let, time is T0 in Figure 01). But in many cases the entities under consideration (human/device) dont come to an end and in those cases we say that it has been suspended, truncated or censored. In many areas of social science and life testing, the subject(s) may leave or enter after they have been put on test. The subject may leave our study before completion (due to failure or death) or may enter late. To analyse such behaviour of human being we are interested in left censored and right censored. Censoring occurs because sometimes our study of interest is lost to follow-up. Censored data means that the observations are known partially and it reflects the side of the dimension. Stephen P. Jenkins in his Survival Analysis wrote, A survival time is censored if all that is known is that it began or ended within some particular interval of time, and thus the total spell length (from entry time until transition) is not known exactly. (Jenkins 2005, p. 4) Its a major problem in social science that some observations are censored but its very usual that our study of interest may not survive until the end period. Left Censored Left censoring refers to the event that occurs at a time before a left bound. In this case we dont know the time when it started. (L Samartzis 2005-06) It is such a situation that we know the datum is below a certain value but we dont know how much it is. Say, for example, a pathological report is revealed which ensures that the patient is suffering from cancer but we have no idea when the patient has been infected. Figure 01 illustrates the censoring situations where X refers the points in time when we actually start or finish monitoring the censored entities, except the beginning (of entity life, at time zero) and the end of the experimental observation period (time T0). Here Line C completes its spell and all other entities are interrupted. Here, a shows an entity that has already been operating for some unknown period of time, before we start monitoring it. This case is called left-censoring. (Dr. J Luis Romeu, n. d.) Figure 01: Left and Right Censoring In a word left censoring means censoring occurs on the left side. If we ignore this type of censoring then there arise selectivity bias because left censoring will overestimate the mean duration as longer spells tend to be observed more frequently than shorter spells. (Amemiya 1999) Right Censored Right censoring refers to the event that occurs at a time after a right bound. In this case we dont know the time when it ended. (L Samartzis 2005-06) In duration models and survival analysis right censoring occurs very often because in many cases observations are known to be larger than some given value. In this case the only information we have is the right bound. Say, for example, we start with 500 light bulbs and this will be terminated after an assigned period of time. In this experiment censoring will occur on the right side because we exactly know the starting point of our experiment. In Figure 01, Line b shows an entity that has been monitored since the beginning of its life (i.e. at the start of the experiment) but which we have ceased to observe before the experiment ends (time T0) or it fails. That is, we observe the entity for some time, after which we are not able to monitor it any more. This other type of truncation is known as right censoring. (Dr. J Luis Romeu, n. d) Comparison between left and right censoring with the help of an example Suppose, a social scientist is interested in analysing the adverse affect of taking illegal drugs in a particular area (may be Colchester). The researcher is willing to determine the distribution of the time until first Marijuana use among high school boys in that area. The question to be answered by the school boys is: When did you first use Marijuana? Let us consider two hypothetical replies: Respondent 01: I have used it but cannot remember just when the first time was. Respondent 02: I never used it. In case of the 1st respondent the event had occurred but exact date at which he started using Marijuana is totally unknown. This is an example of left censored. On the other hand, in the 2nd case the event not yet occurred but there may be the possibility of taking Marijuana in some future dates. Unlike the left censored the censoring occurs on the right side and thus this is an example of right censored. (Klein and Moeschberger 2003, p. 70-71) (b) Stock Sample with follow-up The important things to be considered in this example are: This is a continuous time unemployment spell data. The data were derived using a stock sample with follow-up which is a different name of left truncation (delayed entry) and their applications are similar to handle. This type of data is most commonly used by economists. (Jenkins 2005, p. 5) The stock sample dates are still in progresses which indicate that there are some observations that are right censored. Let us define, Ti = Total spell length f (Ti) = Probability density function (slope of Failure function) at time Ti S (Ti) = Survival function at time Ti ÃŽÂ ¸ (Ti) = Hazard function at time Ti S (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  ti) = The date at which the stock sample was drawn Ci = Censoring indicator Xi = Vector of observed covariates b = Parameter to be estimated N = Sample size There are two types of contributors, Those who leave the state of interest. Those who stay in our state of interest. So the likelihood function will be, N N Ã…Â  = à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  [ f(Ti) / S (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  ti) ] Ci à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  [S (Ti) / S (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  ti) ] 1- Ci i = 1 i= 1 Now by definition of hazard function, we have N Ã…Â  = à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  [ ÃŽÂ ¸ (Ti) ] Ci [S (Ti) / S (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  ti) ] i = 1 N Or, log Ã…Â  = à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ { Ci log ÃŽÂ ¸ (Ti) + log S (Ti) log S (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  ti) } [ Equation no 01 ] i = 1 Equation no 01 clearly states the log-likelihood function of the example. Now its not difficult to consider the Exponential and Weibull model to estimate the parameters. For Exponential Model case: We know that the Exponential model has the following hazard function: ÃŽÂ ¸ (Ti) = ÃŽÂ » where l = exp(bX) Now, by definition the survival function can be obtained from the hazard function by the equation below: t S(t) = exp ( à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚ « ÃŽÂ ¸(u)du ) [ Equation no 02 ] 0 So the survival function of the Exponential model is S(t) = exp (-ÃŽÂ »t ). Now plugging the value of the hazard and survival function of the Exponential model in the log-likelihood function (Equation no 01) we get the Exponential hazard regression model which is as follows: N log Ã…Â  = à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ { Ci log ÃŽÂ » + log [exp (-ÃŽÂ »T )] log [exp (-ÃŽÂ »Ãƒ ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  t )] } i = 1 N Or, log Ã…Â  = à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ { Ci (bX) ÃŽÂ »T ÃŽÂ »Ãƒ ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  t } i = 1 Once we get the value of the variables we can easily calculate the log-likelihood function of the Exponential hazard regression model. For Weibull Model case: Exponential model is a special case of Weibull model which has the following hazard function: ÃŽÂ ¸ (Ti) = ÃŽÂ » ÃŽÂ ± tÃŽÂ ±-1 where l = exp(bX) When ÃŽÂ ± = 1 the model describes the Exponential model thus it is nothing but a special case of Weibull model. From equation no 02 the survival function of Weibull model is, S(t) = exp (-ÃŽÂ »tÃŽÂ ± ) Plugging the value in the log-likelihood function (Equation no 01) we get the Weibull model, N log Ã…Â  = à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ { Ci log [ÃŽÂ » ÃŽÂ ± tÃŽÂ ±-1] + log [exp (- ÃŽÂ »TÃŽÂ ±)] log [exp (- ÃŽÂ »Ãƒ ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  tÃŽÂ ± )] } i = 1 N Or, log Ã…Â  = à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ { Ci (bX) + Ci log ÃŽÂ ± + Ci (ÃŽÂ ± 1) log t ÃŽÂ »TÃŽÂ ± ÃŽÂ »Ãƒ ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  tÃŽÂ ± } i = 1 Like the exponential model we can easily calculate the Weibull model when we have the data of the model. The estimation can be obtained from the above log-likelihood function for the given data. But its a matter of judgment that which model will be the best-fitted? The result depends on the value of ÃŽÂ ± and its critical value of the t-statistic (the p-value). The critical t-statistic value of ÃŽÂ ± will decide which model is appropriate for the given data. If the value of ÃŽÂ ± is greater than 1 and significant then it is wise to consider the Weibull model rather than the exponential model. (c) [Adapted from Wooldridge (2002, Ex. 20.3)] The problem of estimating the censoring and time varying covariates is not possible to handle by the Ordinary Least Square (OLS) method rather it is addressed by the estimation based on Maximum Likelihood (ML) method. But before going to estimate we should identify the type of process that generates the data i.e. the type of sampling scheme. The random sample from the inflow to the state is one of the five sampling schemes analyzed in social science. (Jenkins 2005, p. 61) Given the random sample, let Xi = Vector of observed covariates ÃŽÂ ¸ = Vector of unknown parameters N = Random sample size ti = Length of time Ci= Censoring indicator Ci = 1 if uncensored Ci = 0 if censored The conditional likelihood observations can be written as f( ti | Xi, ÃŽÂ ¸) Ci [ 1 F (ti | Xi, ÃŽÂ ¸ ) 1- Ci where uncensored and censored subjects are in product form. (Cox and Oakes 1992, p. 33) (i) If all observations are right censored, Ci = 0 and hence the log-likelihood function is N à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ log [1 F (ti | Xi, ÃŽÂ ¸) ] [Equation no 03] i=1 (ii) Gompertz model has hazard function q(t, X) = lexp (gt) where l = exp(b0 + b1X1 + b2X2 + à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ + bkXk) and shape parameter g > 0 By definition, survival function S(t) is t S(t) = exp ( à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚ « ÃŽÂ ¸(u)du ) [ recall Equation no 02 ] 0 Now the survival function in Gompertz model is S(t) = exp [ ÃŽÂ » / g exp ( gt ) + (ÃŽÂ » / g ) ] S(t) = exp [ (ÃŽÂ » / g) {1 exp (gt) } ] And consequently the failure function is F(t) = 1- exp [ (ÃŽÂ » / g) {1 exp (gt)}] So the log-likelihood function for Gompertz distribution (from Equation no 03) is N à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ log [1 1 + exp [ (ÃŽÂ » / g) {1 exp (gt)}] ] i=1 N = à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ log [exp [ (ÃŽÂ » / g) {1 exp (gt)}] ] i=1 N = à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ (ÃŽÂ » / g) {1 exp (gt)} [ Equation no 04 ] i=1 (iii) In Gompertz distribution when the covariate vector Xi only contains a constant implies that l = exp (b0) where without this condition l = exp (b0 + b1X1 + b2X2 + à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ + bkXk). In this conditional case the observed covariates Xi is defined only by the constant term b0. Hence the log-likelihood function (from Equation no 04) is N = à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ (ÃŽÂ » / g) {1 exp (gt)} where l = exp( b0 ) i=1 N = à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ (exp( b0 ) / g) {1 exp (gt)} [ Equation no 05 ] i=1 Given positive value of t and g the value of {1 exp (gt)} will always be negative and consequently the value of equation no 05 will be negative. So we can maximise the likelihood function only by maximising b. But when the value of b à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¾ the exp (b0) à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¾. So for any positive value of g (nevertheless to mention that t is also positive) the log-likelihood function (containing only constant of covariate vector Xi ) will lead to b getting more positive values without any bound. We can also rule out the minimisation of log-likelihood function by minimising exp (b0) across b. For the value of b à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¾ the exp (b0) à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ 0. The values of b are getting more and more negative and it will go beyond calculation. Hence, the Gompertz log-likelihood cannot be maximized only for the real numbers b0 and g. (iv) From (iii) we observed that Gompertz log-likelihood cannot be maximised for only real numbers b0 and g. So it is not possible to estimate the Gompertz models from any given flow data when all survival times are right censored. Actually this might be a special case when all data under consideration are right censored and covariate vector Xi contains only a constant. (d) References Amemiya T. (1999), A note on left censoring, Analysis of Panels and Limited Dependent Variables Models, Edited by Hsiao, C., Lahiri, K., Lee, Lung-Fei, and Pesaran, M. H., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cox, D. R. and Oakes, D. (1992), Analysis of Survival Data, 1st edition (Reprinted by University Press, Cambridge), London: Chapman Hall. Jenkins, Stephen P. (2005), Survival Analysis (unpublished), , July 2005, Accessed on 07 April 2010. Klein, J. P. and Moeschberger, M. L. (2003), Survival Analysis: Techniques for Censored and Truncated Data, 2nd Edition, New York: Springer-Verlag. Romeu, Jorge L., (n. d.), Reliability and Advanced Information Technology Research with Alion Science and Technology, Online at , Accessed on 08 April 2010. Samartzis, Lefteris (n. d), Survival and Censored Data, Semester Project, Winter 2005-2006, Online at , Accessed on 08 April 2010. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The End à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦

The Fire Ant :: essays research papers

The Fire Ant (general overview and personal perspectives)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The â€Å"Fire Ant† is one of the most feared migratory arthropods in North America. The first non-native species was introduced into the Port of Mobile, Alabama, starting in 1919, through soil ballast, from South American ships, being dumped ashore. The black fire ant (Solenopsis richteri Forel) arrived sometime in 1919, and the red fire ant (Solenopsis invicta Buren) sometime in the late 1930’s; both much more aggressive and harsh than their two sister species of fire ants, the Tropical fire ant (Solenopsis xyloni McCook) and the Southern fire ant (Solenopsis geminata Fabricius), which are considered native to North America. The presence of imported fire ants within United States boarders was first reported in 1929.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Currently, the IFA (imported fire ant) is found in eleven states (over 300 million acres) , with sporadic, isolated showings as far west as California and as far north as Kansas and Maryland. The surge in fire ant migration came right after world war two, with the housing boom. The migration of fire ants was mostly associated with the mass movement of grass sod and decorative plants for landscaping purposes. However, â€Å"In 1958, the Federal Fire Ant Quarantine was implemented [to] try to limit the spread of fire ants from the quarantined areas. Hay, sod, plants and used soil moving equipment must me inspected and/or treated before being moved out of the quarantine area.† The IFA migration methods include â€Å"†¦seasonal relocations, migration in nursery stock, natural flights, and after floods rafting on water. Ants can be blown by the wind 12 miles during mating flights. They can â€Å"hitchhike† on birds [or other animals] or mass togethe r to form a floating ball to ride out a flood.† It is estimated that a fire ant colony can expand 20-30 miles per year based on mating flights alone.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The IFA migration fear is due to damage to people, but also damage to crops and property. Currently, the IFA is known â€Å"†¦as damaging 57 different species of cultivated plants† including wheat, cotton, corn, sorghum seed, soybean, blueberry, peanut, sunflower, watermelon, cantaloupe, cucumber, pecan, eggplant, okra, strawberry, and potato in addition to property, fire ants have been associated with may outdoor electrical equipment, due to their strong attraction to electrical and magnetic fields and impulses. The effected items where fire ants have been known to nest and be found include: gasoline pumps, traffic lights, electrical and telephone transformers/boxes, air conditions (many, many cases) heat pumps, TV’s, computers, walls and plumbing insulation, water meters, insulation of electrical wiring causing electrical disruptions, and beside and beneath roadways. The Fire Ant :: essays research papers The Fire Ant (general overview and personal perspectives)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The â€Å"Fire Ant† is one of the most feared migratory arthropods in North America. The first non-native species was introduced into the Port of Mobile, Alabama, starting in 1919, through soil ballast, from South American ships, being dumped ashore. The black fire ant (Solenopsis richteri Forel) arrived sometime in 1919, and the red fire ant (Solenopsis invicta Buren) sometime in the late 1930’s; both much more aggressive and harsh than their two sister species of fire ants, the Tropical fire ant (Solenopsis xyloni McCook) and the Southern fire ant (Solenopsis geminata Fabricius), which are considered native to North America. The presence of imported fire ants within United States boarders was first reported in 1929.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Currently, the IFA (imported fire ant) is found in eleven states (over 300 million acres) , with sporadic, isolated showings as far west as California and as far north as Kansas and Maryland. The surge in fire ant migration came right after world war two, with the housing boom. The migration of fire ants was mostly associated with the mass movement of grass sod and decorative plants for landscaping purposes. However, â€Å"In 1958, the Federal Fire Ant Quarantine was implemented [to] try to limit the spread of fire ants from the quarantined areas. Hay, sod, plants and used soil moving equipment must me inspected and/or treated before being moved out of the quarantine area.† The IFA migration methods include â€Å"†¦seasonal relocations, migration in nursery stock, natural flights, and after floods rafting on water. Ants can be blown by the wind 12 miles during mating flights. They can â€Å"hitchhike† on birds [or other animals] or mass togethe r to form a floating ball to ride out a flood.† It is estimated that a fire ant colony can expand 20-30 miles per year based on mating flights alone.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The IFA migration fear is due to damage to people, but also damage to crops and property. Currently, the IFA is known â€Å"†¦as damaging 57 different species of cultivated plants† including wheat, cotton, corn, sorghum seed, soybean, blueberry, peanut, sunflower, watermelon, cantaloupe, cucumber, pecan, eggplant, okra, strawberry, and potato in addition to property, fire ants have been associated with may outdoor electrical equipment, due to their strong attraction to electrical and magnetic fields and impulses. The effected items where fire ants have been known to nest and be found include: gasoline pumps, traffic lights, electrical and telephone transformers/boxes, air conditions (many, many cases) heat pumps, TV’s, computers, walls and plumbing insulation, water meters, insulation of electrical wiring causing electrical disruptions, and beside and beneath roadways.

4 mat review entwistle Essay

In the book, Integrative Approaches to Psychology and Christianity by David N. Entwistle (2010) the reader is first introduced to the conflict of the integration of psychology and Christianity. The thought is that Christianity is based on faith and psychology is based on truth. As a result, it is the idea that Christianity and psychology may be impossible to coexist. â€Å"The integration of psychology and theology is virtually inevitable due to their mutual interest in understanding the ambiguities and mysteries of human behavior and healing human brokenness.† (Entwistle, 2010, p. 51) Essentially, this statement is a summation of the entire reading. Even though Christianity and psychology are at two opposite ends of the spectrum, the two ideas still carry the ability to be integrated with one another and implemented. Entwistle, explains the integration of psychology and Christianity by first providing a historical overview of scientific and theological communities in order to provide a more in depth understanding of the modern process of integrating psychological thought with Christianity. Entwistle states that the term â€Å"integrated† should also be viewed as a noun because he says, â€Å"If Christ lays claim to all of life, then the work of integration becomes not just feasible, but imperative, as we attempt to understand the essence of unity.† (Entwistle, 2010, p. 16) To continue, Entwistle explains that science and faith have always been conflicting ideas because science is contradictory to theological concepts. Entwistle some what agrees with this idea but based off of a person’s previous assumptions or knowledge about psychology and theology. If a psychologist were to recognize their faith bias when operating in their chosen specialty of psychology, then they could use science as a means of evidence or testament to the auspiciousness of Christ (Entwistle, 2010). As the book goes on, Entwistle introduces five different disciplinary relationships, which include enemies, spies, colonialists, neutral parties, and allies (Entwistle, 2010). Enemies can either be secular or Christian but the common factor is that they agree that there can be no coexistence of faith and science within the field of psychology. Spies are members of the Christian faith who happen to have a background in psychology but are only interested  in the â€Å"benefits of their own religious system† (Entwistle, 2010, p. 182). Spies could also include those who wish to explore the effects of faith on an individual. Colonialists use parts of psychology integrated with their own ideals and beliefs. Neutral parties are indifferent to both secular and theological arguments for the integration of psychology. However, neutral parties are able to maintain that indifference by keeping science and Christianity separate (Entwistle, 2010). The allies’ mode is different from neutral parties model because it is against that idea that theology is docile to psychology and that faith is a â€Å"vehicle to express psychological truth and to foster psychological benefits† (Entwistle, 2010, p. 206). The remaining reading is geared towards understanding truth as it relates to the psychological and theological mindset. In order to better understand the integration of psychology and theology and the similarities and differences between the two, Entwistle explains that we can gain a better understanding of human ps yche and consider completing developmental research in order to come up with counseling techniques that will be valuable for future generations. Concrete Response As a young child I remember growing up my parents explained to me that I would have to work hard in order to achieve success. My parents are very successful people with multiple degrees and although I was a stellar student, I wasn’t the least bit interested in school. I would much rather play sports or dance. My mom came to me one day and said, â€Å"I don’t know if you’ll ever be a doctor or lawyer the way we planned but whatever you decide we will be proud.† I was happy and sad at the same time because although she knew that I am intelligent, she didn’t try to press upon me something that her and my father’s plans for my life. However, I didn’t feel like my parents believed that I could become someone great. I must say that my parents have allowed me and continue to allow me to flourish into the person that God designed for me to be. Even though I appreciated my mother for making that clear to me, I still felt as if I had something t o prove to them. I set out to take as many collegiate level classes as possible in high school and even pushed myself to the limit in my undergraduate courses. On top of all of my schoolwork, I pushed myself to commit to extracurricular  activities within my church and school. When I first read Entwistle’s description of the allies’ model, I immediately thought of myself as an ally. Although our goal at the end of the day is to please God, I felt as if I had to please my parents through my education but I would eventually have to follow God’s plan for my life. While I took the time to find myself, I was forgetting about my religion and solely focused on my psychological wellbeing. I definitely had to get to a place where I was able to integrate both my mental health and well being as well as focus on my relationship with Christ. Reflection In the book Integrative Approaches to Psychology and Christianity, the reader is introduced to the understanding and correlation of psychology and theology. The study of psychology is referenced throughout this book many times but one ideal that is not addressed is the answer as to what a Christian should do with the ideals that are presented in this text. As it is well written, this particular text is invaluable to students and professors or those who wish to study the integration of psychology and theology as it relates to academia. On the converse, what about a regular church pastor or missionary who would like to be more well-versed in their counseling strategies or teaching people who to heal and deal with mental health conditions. The book is well written in the fact that any person who is not familiar with psychological or theological terminology can also understand the content of the text. Although the book many questions in relation to the integration of psychology and theol ogy, it is apparent that the author did not mention the definitions of â€Å"nature† versus â€Å"unnatural.† Nature does not exist today because of the fall of man therefore, we as humans today only know the unnatural. This is a part of the reason that we find human beings to be so unnatural in their thoughts, feelings, and actions. Because of sin, there is no more innocence of creation has been destroyed and can only be restored through the blood of Christ. As psychology and theology integrate, humans can be studied in their natural state. Action For a counseling psychologist or anyone who would like to practice professional counseling, one of the most important steps would be to understand the disciplinary models presented in the text. The Christian community may not be knowledgeable how a person would be classified within the five models. The typical Christian would not know whether or not they would be helping or hindering the individual if they were not familiar with the ideals and beliefs that goes along with each particular model. Having a better understanding of each model will allow a psychologist, or even a regular church pastor to understand where they fall within each model and which model will allow them to provide the best care plan for that client. The following step would be to also evaluate scientific models of psychology in order to better understand which model would integrate well with theology and the five disciplinary models. Understanding what each option and/or technique will provide will allow evidence of Christ through science. As a result, disciples will be brought to Christ because then they will believe. Integration of psychology and Christianity (theology) is more than just ideas and techniques, but the integration of the two will provide insight as to how we as humans live our lives before Christ (Entwistle, 2010). References Entwistle, D. N. (2010). Integrative Approaches to Psychology and Christianity: an Introduction to Worldview Issues, Philosophical Foundations, and Models of Integration (2nd ed.). Eugene, OR

What Lessons Should A Manager Take From Stanley Milgram s...

What lessons should a manager take from Stanley Milgram s studies of obedience? How does obedience impact on organisational ethics, and what steps can a manager take to take to reduce this problem? Introduction Organisations struggle to achieve their goals without at least some level of obedience from the people in the organisation. If everyone disobeyed their superiors in organisations then very little would be achieved. However, can too high a level of obedience be a bad thing for an organisation? Stanley Milgram’s original obedience test in 1961 tested subjects’ responses to authoritative pressure showed that a higher number of participants would deliver a lethal shock to someone if instructed to do so by a person they perceived to be an authority figure. There are some implications from this in terms of how managers work with their staff, as well as implications relating to ethical behaviour inside organisations which will be discussed here. In the following essay, a brief description of Milgram’s studies into obedience will be provided, then two key implications of the studies as they relate to managers will be discussed, followed by a brief discussion on orga nisational ethics and the dilemmas relating to obedience. Finally, we will look into ways to reduce the both managerial and organisational dilemmas discussed. Stanley Milgram’s experiments Stanley Milgram conducted studies into obedience of authority in order to understand how something like the Nazis’Show MoreRelatedStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesTokyo Editorial Director: Sally Yagan Director of Editorial Services: Ashley Santora Acquisitions Editor: Brian Mickelson Editorial Project Manager: Sarah Holle Editorial Assistant: Ashlee Bradbury VP Director of Marketing: Patrice Lumumba Jones Senior Marketing Manager: Nikki Ayana Jones Senior Managing Editor: Judy Leale Production Project Manager: Becca Groves Senior Operations Supervisor: Arnold Vila Operations Specialist: Cathleen Petersen Senior Art Director: Janet Slowik Art Director:Read MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 Pagesthat helps you actively study and prepare material for class. Chapter-by-chapter activities, including built-in pretests and posttests, focus on what you need to learn and to review in order to succeed. Visit www.mymanagementlab.com to learn more. DEVELOPING MANAGEMENT SKILLS EIGHTH EDITION David A. Whetten BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY Kim S. Cameron UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Prentice Hall Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai